Music/Dance Library: Music 786 - Ohio State University Libraries
Music Research Methods and Bibliography
(Music 786)
Michael Murray, OSU Music/Dance Library
Music Research Methods and Bibliography, Music 786
Writing
First things first: The best way to improve your writing skills is
to read a lot — and to read good prose, though not necessarily masterpieces exclusively. You will soon discover which authors write well, and if you
attend to words you'll soon learn some of the reasons why. Attending to words also means making a habit of trying to say what you mean — using precise words rather than "blanket" words or abstractions. Don't be vague when you can be clear. Don't say: "There's a chance of precipitation," when you mean: "It may rain."
Form. The human mind is so put together that it requires some degree of regularity and symmetry. A shop window in which the objects for sale are thrown together helter-skelter not only gives no pleasure to the passer-by, but makes it hard for him or her to notice anything in particular. If you throw a bunch of paper clips down on the table, the mind will usually find a pattern.
In written matter, the most frequent failure of form comes from wrong emphasis. The mind cannot give equal attention to every part — of a sentence or a book — but must be guided to those parts which it should attend to for correct understanding. For example, a "little form" such as
italics is a signpost directing the mind to look this way or that. So is a footnote. Other pointers include length, beginnings, interruptions, internal arrangements, parts, chapters, and headings — all of which also go to make up "form."
Order. Form and order are intimately related. Good writing puts ideas in an order that aids understanding. For example, it is usual to proceed from the general to the particular. Thus a paragraph often starts with a topic sentence in which a broad idea is stated; additional sentences elaborate or refine.
Syntax (the position of words in a sentence) is a powerful part of form. For example, in these two sentences syntax (placement) wholly determines meaning: "Dog bites man." "Man bites dog." Syntax can easily go wrong: "The wind blew across the desert where the corpse lay and whistled."
Diction (the choice of words). Because English derives from several languages — unlike, say, French, which derives almost entirely from one — English vocabulary is extraordinarily rich. French has perhaps a quarter of a million words; English has more than twice that many. Accordingly, Diction offers extraordinarily rich possibilities.
Among other things, Diction determines tone. At a funeral you would probably say: "Please accept my sympathy upon your husband's passing." You would probably not say: "Sorry your old man kicked the bucket."
And diction, together with syntax, determines clarity. For one thing, words convey images, and the good writer wants those images to be accurate, appropriate, and attractive, and convey thought in its fullness. The good writer tends to use plain words — avoiding jargon and clichés — and to eliminate unnecessary words.
Sentences that need help
I will be certified to teach grades four through nine, and I think even at that age applying age-appropriate concepts is beneficial to the student because it will help them be able to do it easier when they get to college if they start young.
The maritime elements were disaffected. (The sailors were rebellious.)
Whitehead feels that nature is a continuum. (Whitehead thinks, believes, posits, maintains, argues, supposes, imagines, demonstrates, proves.)
I would like the benefit of your thinking. (Your views, opinions, thought, knowledge, advice.)
The author footnotes this idea to Samuel Johnson. (The author assigns to, ascribes to, attributes to, credits with, blames for, foists upon, accuses of, palms off on, discovers in.)
Unnecessaries
An adjective of nearly any sort is almost always unnecessary. Terser is worser: fewer words, stronger message.
He was the victim of bitter attacks.
His actions were wholly unjustifiable.
You should seriously consider going.
She fully recognized the strength of the argument.
I'm afraid you are thoroughly mistaken.
It was a crushing defeat.
She was governed by her ruthless ambition.
Beware Abstraction — Prefer the Concrete
In order to substantiate our desire to accommodate our guests we would appreciate your cooperation to anticipate your credit requirements before departure. Meaning: If you wish to cash a check, please let us know before leaving.
The utilization of any intellectual endowment in cases of retardation among children is dependent on parental reaction toward them in the domestic environment. Meaning: How much a backward child uses his intelligence depends on how his parents treat him at home.
Siblings evince a tendency towards mutually antagonistic responses. Meaning: Brothers and sisters often fight.
Facility of comprehension in a literary situation is not readily effected by indifferent interpersonal communication. Meaning: It is hard to understand a writer who does not try to be clear.
On English Usage, English Composition
from William Strunk: The Elements of Style
Form the possessive singular of nouns with 's. Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write:
Charles's friend
Burns's poems
the witch's malice
Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names in -es and -is, the possessive Jesus', and such forms as for conscience' sake and for righteousness' sake. But such forms as Achilles' heel, Moses' laws, and Isis' temple are commonly replaced by
the heel of Achilles
the laws of Moses
the temple of Isis
The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, and oneself have no apostrophe.
In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.
red, white, and blue
honest, energetic, but headstrong
He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.
In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted: Brown, Shipley and Company
The abbreviation etc., even if only a single term comes before it, is always preceded by a comma.
Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.
This rule is hard to apply; it is often hard to decide whether a single word, such as "however," or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the interruption be slight or considerable, he must never omit one comma and leave the other. Such punctuations as these are indefensible:
Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday.
My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health.
Non-restrictive relative clauses are, in accordance with this rule, set off by commas.
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.
Similar clauses introduced by where and when are similarly punctuated.
In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.
Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, is a few miles from Bridgewater.
In these sentences the clauses introduced by which, when, and where are non-restrictive; they do not limit the application of the words on which they depend, but add, parenthetically, statements supplementing those in the principal clauses. Each sentence is a combination of two statements which might have been made independently.
The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more and more interested.
Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.
Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner at Nether Stowey. Nether Stowey is only a few miles from Bridgewater.
Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas.
The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.
In this sentence the relative clause restricts the application of the word "candidate" to a single person. Unlike those above, the sentence cannot be split into two independent statements.
The abbreviations etc. and jr. are always preceded by a comma and, except at the end of a sentence, followed by one.
If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma before the conjunction, not after it.
He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery, greeted us with a smile.
Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause.
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.
Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an after-thought. Further, and is the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.
Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.
But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern.
Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as (in the sense of because), for, or, nor, and while (in the sense of and at the same time) likewise require a comma before the conjunction.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction.
The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape.
Do not join independent clauses by a comma. If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting adventures.
It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.
But you can alternatively write the above sentences as two sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting adventures.
It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.
If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting adventures.
It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about.
If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma usually suffices:
Man proposes, God disposes.
The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.
Do not break sentences in two. In other words, do not use periods for commas.
I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.
He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world, and lived in half a dozen countries.
In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter.
A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.
Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.
The word "walking" refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence:
He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.
Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence.
A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defence of the city.
Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy.
Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible.
Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.
Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap.
In general, make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.
If your subject is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, it should be examined to see whether subdivision will not improve it.
But usually a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to the reader that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:
1. Account of the work
2. Critical discussion
A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of seven paragraphs:
1. Facts of composition and publication
2. Kind of poem; metrical form
3. Subject
4. Treatment of subject
5. For what chiefly remarkable
6. Wherein characteristic of the writer
7. Relationship to other works
A novel might be discussed under the heads
1. Setting
2. Plot
3. Characters
4. Purpose
A historical event might be discussed under the heads
1. What led up to the event
2. Account of the event
3. What the event led up to
As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in conformity with the beginning. Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended enables the reader to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain the purpose in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which
1. the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning
2. the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the statement made in the topic sentence; and
3. the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic sentence or states some important consequence
If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (again; therefore; for the same reason) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph.
Use the active voice. It is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:
I shall always remember my first visit to Boston. My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.
Not that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice. It is often convenient and sometimes necessary. But the habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is or could be heard.
A survey of this region was made in 1900. This region was surveyed in 1900.
Mobilization of the army was rapidly carried out. The army was rapidly mobilized.
Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained. These reports cannot be confirmed.
Put statements in positive form.
Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word "not" as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.
He was not very often on time. He usually came late.
He did not think that studying Latin was much use. He thought the study of Latin useless.
The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant.
All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word "not." Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is.
Omit needless words.
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.
Many expressions in common use violate this principle:
the question as to whether = whether (the question whether)
there is no doubt but that = no doubt (doubtless)
used for fuel purposes = used for fuel
he is a man who = he
in a hasty manner = hastily
this is a subject which = this subject
His story is a strange one. = His story is strange.
call your attention to the fact that = remind you
Avoid a succession of loose sentences.
This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable, a series quickly becomes monotonous and tedious.
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented.
Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is bad because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song.
If you find that you have written a series of sentences like these, you should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses — whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.
Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function.
The unskilful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form. But generally you should follow the principle of parallel construction.
Keep related words together.
The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.
Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested.
In summaries, keep to one tense.
In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.
Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.
The proper place for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end of the sentence.
Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.
This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors.
The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in the sentence.
The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, becomes emphatic when placed first. The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.
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